Saphon’s Blog

External (such as legal issues, globalization, and diversity) and internal factors (such as motivation and training & development) are continuing to influence how a company operates.  It is critical that companies understand different legal issues they may face because the different issues may harm their reputation (Noe, 2008).  Failing to provide training, injuries, confidentiality, including women and minorities, equality and discrimination are all important issues that companies need to take into consideration.  “Using copyrighted material” is an issue that needs to be stressed because it is often overlooked.  It is important for companies to be aware that using any copyrighted material without the owner’s permission is illegal (Noe, 2008).  However, one can use small amount of the copyrighted material without permission if that standards relate to (1) the purpose for which is being used, (2) what the copyrighted work is, (3) the proportion of it being used, and (4) how much money the owner can lose (Noe, 2008).  Since companies are expanding globally and the workplace is becoming more diverse, cross-cultural preparation and being able to manage diversity is crucial as well.  Therefore, companies need to make employees aware of the diverse workforce and prepared for dealing with different diversity.  Finally, melting the glass ceiling is still a goal companies are trying to achieve because women and minorities are still having difficulty moving to upper-level position.  There are many other issues that companies need to address, for instance, retirement, pay and benefits.  Ways to addressing these issues is planning and training. (Noe, 20

A supportive work-life culture has been shown to improve relationship, absenteeism and motivation.  This type of culture allows employees to focus on their jobs while at work, thus, saving the company a great deal of money.  Companies are also seeing the importance of socialization and orientation programs in order to increase employees’ relation.  These programs will also help new and current employees understand the history and the culture of the company.  According to Noe (2008), another challenge to increase motivation and commitment is creating a career path that employees can move through in the company.  Unlike traditional career path, dual-career path “enables employees to remain in a technical career path or move into a management career path” (Noe, 2008, p. 442).  In this career path, employees are able to choose the path that best match their interests and skills.  On the other hand, skills obsolescence is not something that motivates employees because employees’ competences are reduced due to lack of new knowledge.  To avoid obsolescence, companies need to take into consideration the culture that influencing the development of skills as well as providing employees to exchange information, giving employees challenging assignments and providing assignments that enable employees to stretch their skills (Noe, 2008).  More and more companies are seeing the need to respond and be flexible with work issues.  For instance, some companies are developing retirement programs to elder workers that are thinking about retiring.

Noe (20 identified many issues and challenges that companies have to address when wanting to improve the workplace environment.  Grugulis (2007) however, talked about different international systemic problems.  In the market economies, such as the United State, the most severe problem is often the lack of skills development because these economies only offer training when wanting to remain competitive or produce quality goods.  In regulated economies, on the other hand, vocational education and training is supported by the state.  In this case, unemployment is a disadvantage that these economies are facing.  Grugulis (2007) also talked about management and leadership development.  According to Grugulis (2007), there is no set definition for management because managers and leaderships tasks and roles vary.  Grugulis talked about how gaining managerial rank involves experience and expertise, but is that always the case?  From personal experience, employees can rise in hierarchy through networking.  Something I thought was interesting that Grugulis didn’t talk about.

According to Noe (2008), business strategies have major impact on the amount and type of training that occurs because the strategy influences how companies use their physical, financial and human capital.  Training will continue to be important for organizations because it focuses on developing individuals’ skills; in addition, training has become even more important because it emphasizes learning and creating and sharing knowledge (Noe, 2008).  Two types of knowledge were identified:  explicit and tacit knowledge.  Noe (2008), states that explicit knowledge refers to knowledge that can formalized, codified and communicated, which can be found in manuals.  Tacit knowledge, on the other hand, is more complex because it is based on individuals’ experience.  Companies are able to gain competitive advantages through tacit knowledge because it is impossible to imitate.

Furthermore, Noe (20 introduced the strategic training and development process.  The models begin with identifying the company’s business strategy.  The company’s mission, vision, and values are factors influencing business strategy.  Next, is identifying the strategic training and development initiatives that support the strategy.  The initiatives are based on the business environment, goals and resources.  Third, is providing the training and development activities that are linked to initiatives.  For example, Sun Micosystems’ priorities were making money, growing, capitalizing, leveraging partners and simplifying the business.  The training and development activities were used to achieve these priorities.  Identifying and collecting metrics to show training success is the final step; for instance, companies use the balances scorecard as a means of measuring performance.  Furthermore, it is important to keep in mind that employee and manager roles, top management support, business units’ integration, global presence, business conditions, human resource practices, unionization and staff involvement are factors influencing training and development.  Noe (20 also introduced different models to organizing the training department.  I did not like one in particular because each has advantages and disadvantages; also, choosing the right model is according the structure of the company. (Noe, 20

Finally, Grugulis (2007) discussed the complexity of emotions, aesthetics, culture and knowledge in the workplace.  Firstly, work is not designed to accommodate employees’ emotions; instead, employees have to change their emotions in ways to fit work.  Grugulis argue that emotions may be controlled by their managers.  Organizations, like Disneyland encouraged employees to feel emotions in order to act them out in certain ways.  Aesthetics, too, may be under managers’ control.  More attractive employees are always hired first; however, managers may seek to control and improve their appearances.  Women are especially affected by this, for example, they are considered to be better at subordinating their emotional needs and they judged more strictly on their grooming.  Furthermore, according to Grugulis (2007), culture has been a recipe for success; however, the best thing to do is understand the patterns and not to shape it.    Grugulis (2007) suggested empowerment as a tool to managing culture; however, one has to keep in mind that it is not entirely on-way.  Finally, Grugulis (2007) discussed how work is becoming more knowledgeable.  He mentioned that like skills, knowledge is also seen as socially constructed.  Grugulis (2007) also mention that service sector work is knowledge work because tasks are not routine.  Additionally, knowledge management can be seen as an extended library; where firms attempt to capture all the knowledge.  On the other hand, knowledge-intensive firm is where experts are brought together to share knowledge.  In addition, exchanging and passing on knowledge is ‘social’ knowledge.  It is interesting that Grugulis (2007) showed a longer list of different types of knowledge than Noe (2007). 

Choosing the right evaluation model can sometime be challenging to evaluators.  Evaluators can choose the best model; however, all the work the evaluators put in to the evaluation may be a waste of time if there are individuals’ resistances to engage in evaluation process.  According to Hansen (2005), there are three different logics to determine the design model:  the purpose of evaluation, characteristics of the objects to be evaluated and the problem to be solved by the evaluated object.  In addition, evaluators need to keep in mind individuals’ resistance to engage in the evaluation, because it will help with the effectiveness of the evaluation process (Taut, 2003).

According to Hansen (2005), there are six categories of evaluation models.  (1) The results model focuses on the performances’, programs’ or organizations’ result.  (2) The process model focuses on the ongoing process and effort.  (3) The system model analyzes input, structure, process and outcome.  (4) The economic models consider the object of the evaluation as a ‘black box’ by relating input and output.  (5) The actor model is client-oriented.  Finally, the programme theory model focuses on assessing the validity.  All models have their strengths and weaknesses; however, the purpose, the characteristics of the objects and the problem to be solved in the evaluation will help us determine the choice of the model (Hansen, 2005). 

To begin with, the purpose of the evaluation should determine the choice of the model.  For instance, if the purpose is control, the recommendation is to base the design on the result model.  On the other hand, if the purpose is learning, it is recommended that the design is based on the process model.  Furthermore, the characteristics of the object to be evaluated should determine the design.  This method is similar to the contingency perspective because it states that the characteristics of the tasks and the environment are the grounds for structural design (Hansen, 2005).  Lastly, the design should be based on the problem to be solved.  In brief, there are different types of reasoning to choosing the right model; though, the idea here is to leave room for other logics when determining the evaluation design.

Understanding individuals’ resistance in evaluation is important as well.  Taut (2003) focuses on the stakeholders’ resistance to engaging in evaluation, because in this article she summarized implications of different concepts to understanding their resistance.  The first implication state that stakeholders had previous experience with the evaluation.  If the experience were negative, stakeholders would most likely resist future evaluation engagement.  Second, stakeholders may resist evaluation if the cost-benefit analysis may anticipate more disadvantages than advantages.  Third, they show resistance if the evaluation is seen as changing the power structure.  Fourth, stakeholders may feel disrespected if their autonomy is seen as being restricted.  Fifth, the evaluation may be seen as limiting their control.  Sixth, evaluation is seen as a competition.  Seventh, stakeholders are differentiated on the basis of how they approach performance situations.  Finally, they are likely to resist evaluation if they feel it would ruin their self-image.

Evaluators need to be prepared to see that resistance to change is an important source of information.  According to Taut (2003), resistance is related to development and change.  I agree with Taut (2003) in this aspect, because it is critical for evaluators to be aware of all these implications and not see it as a burden.  This would be a start in addressing these resistances.  I also like how Taut (2003) brought up participatory evaluation and how it would a strategy to address these resistances.  I read this article last week and I admire Taut (2003) for pointing how this evaluation model focus on increasing individuals’ participation to lead to higher acceptance of evaluation.

Evaluation has been around for centuries; however, its role in society has changed.  In the early days, it was used by the Chinese to consider individuals for memberships.  Furthermore, modern-day evaluation was mainly focused on educational assessment.  Today, evaluations are used to perform government mandates, improve programs effectiveness, and to enhance organizational learning (Preskill & Russ-Eft, 2001).  Empowerment evaluation and participatory program evaluation are a few types of evaluations that are used today to improve society.  Participatory program evaluation is one that I like in particular.  Individuals participating in the evaluation process enable researchers to gain more accurate data.

As organizations are being forced to respond to competitors’ advantage, they will turn to evaluation as a tool to help them determine how to progress.  Preskill & Russ-Eft (2001) has identified eleven most influential evaluation models that organizations can use to help in their development.  (1) Behavioral objectives approach concern that program’s goals and objectives are identified.  (2) Responsive approach calls for evaluators to be responsive to information needs of various audiences.  (3) Goal-free evaluation assumes that goals and objectives are not identified.  (4) In adversary/Judicial approach, two teams of evaluators presenting two different views argue their case based on the data collected.  (5) Consumer-oriented approach is based on standards set forth and guided by consumers’ needs.  (6) Expertise/accreditation approaches involve experts in the evaluation.  (7) Utilization-focused evaluation requires the evaluator and stakeholders choose an evaluation design.  Participatory/collaborative stresses the involvement of the participants.  (9) Empowerment concerned about the issues of social justice and fairness in program evaluation.  (10) Evaluation and organizational learning links evaluation to organizational learning.  (11) Theory-driven evaluation uses the program’s theory as the basis of an evaluation to understand the program’s development.  (Preskill & Russ-Eft, 2001)

Empowerment evaluation and participatory program evaluation is a couple tool that can be used today to help organizations as well as society.  Empowerment evaluation’s goal is “an increase in the actual power of the client or community so that action can be taken to change and prevent the problems clients are facing” (Secret, Jordan & Ford, 1999).  Empowerment evaluation is mostly applicable to programs that serve oppressed people.  Its focus is on helping people help themselves.  HIV Planning Committee is an example that chose this evaluation to achieve their goals.  The evaluation was used to develop a street outreach program to guide individuals at high risk of HIV/AIDS.  On the other hand, participatory program evaluation was used to identify whether information technology was useful for people with disabilities.  Participants need to attend training in order to be given a computer.  While at training, participants were interviewed and were given questionnaires to reflect three areas related to the ITSA experience:  performance; self-efficacy, and importance satisfaction and control (Mirza, Anandan, 2006).  Both evaluations have advantages and disadvantages; however, organizations need to identify which evaluation best fit their programs.

Regardless of whether it is a traditional or technology training method a company use, for training to be effective it needs to be based on the training design.  There are three traditional training methods that are discussed:  presentation, hands-on, and group building methods.  Technology-based training is also becoming important.  Web-based training, e learning, and virtual reality are examples of technology-based training methods.  Traditional training does not require the use of technology to deliver its training; however, needs assessment, design, transfer, and evaluation are important components to consider for traditional training and technological training to be effective. 

Presentation, hands-on, and group building are three traditional training methods.  First, presentation methods consist of lecture and audiovisual techniques.  A lecture is one of the least expensive and least time-consuming ways to present to a large group.  Standard lecture, team teaching, guest speakers, panels, and student presentations are variations of lecture methods (Noe, 2008, p. 236).  Audiovisual techniques, on the other hand, include use of overheads, slides, and video.  Problems that trainers need to consider when using audiovisual techniques are too much content for trainees, poor dialogue, overuse of humor and music, etc. Furthermore, hands-on methods include on-the-job training (OJT), simulations, case studies, business games, role-plays, and behavior modeling.  OJT is based on the principles emphasized by social learning theory, which includes the use of a credible trainer or a manager/peer who models the behavior and skills (Noe, 2008, p. 239).  A simulation is training that mirrors real-life situation a great example would be pilot training.  This training is useful but it is also extremely expensive to develop.  There are more examples of hands-on method but the point here is getting the trainee involved in learning.  Finally, group building such as team training, action learning, and adventure learning focus on skills needed to work effectively in groups.  When choosing a training method, it is important to compare methods because you are able to pick the one that fit best with your training design.

On the other hand, technology influence on training and learning is becoming important.  Again, in order for training to be effective, the method chosen needs to fit with the training design and business structure.  The use of technology allows for digital collaboration because people are able to work together regardless of their geographical location (Noe, 2008, p. 271).  Classroom learning environment, which discussed earlier require the instructor and learners.  Technological and blended learning environment has made learning a more dynamic process.  In blended learning environment, trainers have access to both online and classroom instructions.  In order for online learning and web-based training to be effective, needs assessment, design/method, and evaluations needs to be addressed.  Everyone needs to be involved in the needs assessment.  In the design process, companies need to make sure that it gives learner control because it gives them the ability to learn their own pace.  Finally, in the evaluation process, it is also important to include those that are involved in the training process.  It is critical for designers to take into account the bandwidth that is available to both trainers and trainees.  In addition, if possible, designers should avoid using plug-ins.  To support training, technologies such as expert systems, groupware, and electronic support (EPSS) are being used.  These are used as aids for employees who may not have attended training or even need them on as-need base.  Technology training has an advantage over traditional training because it allows employees to pace themselves. 

Barnes and Blevins (2003) discuss a couple teaching methods in more details.  The hypothesis that they came up with is that the discussion method would produce superior examination scores.  Arguments favoring the hypothesis state that participation, engagement, relationship and practiced are absent in the lecture format.  On other hand, arguments not favoring the hypothesis state that students are responsible for their learning.  For instance, students who rarely put in effort to complete their work show display little self-regulated study.  A study that was conducted did show that discussion method yield a higher score than lecture and lecture/discussion.  Furthermore, Buch and Bartley (2002) argue that learning style influence learners’ preference for training methods, whether it is traditional classroom or computer-based.  The authors use Kolb’s learning style model in reference to their argument.  The model identified four different learning styles:  convergers, accommodators, divergers, and assimilators.  Firstly, divergers enjoy idea generation activities.  They prefer traditional, classroom-based delivery.  Secondly, accommodators prefer computer-based training because they enjoy self-directed learning methods. Thirdly, convergers prefer computer-based instruction because they like to work in a trail-and-error environment.  Finally, assimilators prefer print-based because they enjoy reading and thinking alone.  An instrument, the preferred delivery mode self-assessment was used to measure the learners’ preferred method of training delivery.  Based upon the studies, researchers did show that learners’ learning style influences their preference for training methods.

Regardless of the training method, it is critical that the methods chosen fit with the training design and the business structure.  A needs assessment should be conducted before deciding on which methods is most appropriate for training.  Noe (20 gave a list of advantages and disadvantages of these different training methods.  This should help guide trainers choose the best suitable method for their training design.  I like the idea of blended learning environment because trainees have access to both online and classroom instruction, while at the same time, collaboration occurs between trainers and trainees.  It is also critical that trainees are able to learn from the training method chosen.

Learning is a complex concept that has been a study of interest to many people.  Aristotle’s and Plato’s view about learning are great examples that help set the stage for other ideas about learning theories.  Behaviorist, cognitivist, humanist, and social learning are four learning theories that outline the different ideas of learning.  Furthermore, Transfer of training and designing effective training programs are also important to take into consideration when making sure learning occurs.

To begin with, behaviorists define learning as a change in behavior (Merriem & Cafferella).  Edward L. Thorndike and B.F. Skinner contribute to understanding this learning.  Thorndike way of understanding learning has come to be called connectionism or S-R theory.  To help explain this he came up with the three laws of learning:  (1) Law of Effect states that learners remember satisfying effects, (2) Law of Effects shows that repetition of meaningful exercise results in learning, and finally (3) Law of Readiness explain that if learners are ready, learning is enhanced.  Skinner, on the other hand, came up with operant conditioning.  He said it is important to focus reinforcing what you want the individual to do and ignore unimportant things.   In contrast to behaviorist, cognitivist focus on the internal behavior rather than external, for instance, they believe that learning lies with the individual learning instead within the environment.  An example of cognitivist is Gestaltists Jean Piaget, who proposed that cognitive change through experiences.  Also when compared to behaviorist, humanist believe that human beings control their own destiny instead of the environment controlling them.  Motivation, in this case, is a function of learning.  For instance, Maslow’s form of self-actualization shows that it is the primary goal of learning.  Finally, social learning suggests that learning occur through observation and interactions with others.  “Observational learning is influenced by four processes:  attention, retention, behavioral rehearsal, and motivation.”  (Merriem & Cafferella)

Alternatively, learning is pointless if transfer of training does not occur.  Training characteristics, training design, and work environment are three factors that influence learning and transfer of learning (Noe, 2008, p. 169).  Transfer of training is something that trainers need to consider before training because trainers can get the managers and peers support.  It has been shown that managers’ and peers’ attitude toward transfer of training can influence trainee’s level of motivation.  Managers can use identical theories, stimulus generalization, and cognitive theories to apply to training design to help increase transfer of training.  Designing effective programs are also important to learning and transfer (Noe, 2008, p. 149).  Selecting appropriate training sites and trainers are key to effective learning.  Organizations need to involve those are taking part in training to increase motivation; this in-turn will increase learning and transfer of training. Organizations now are also looking toward transfer of learning and knowledge management.  Learning organizations see training as a way to create human capital.  Furthermore, companies are encouraging knowledge sharing within employees.  To make this happen, companies need to promote employees who learn, teach, and share.  As a result, companies need to attract and retain key employees. (Noe, 20

The different theories of learning mentioned will be useful for instructors in designing training.  I find it helpful because I can use these theories to work toward people of diverse learning backgrounds.  In addition, Noe (20 explained how important it is to involve managers and peers in the training design process because it will motivate them to accept that training and learning are important.  This in-turn will increase transfer of training.  Noe (20 also listed out lists of consideration to designing effective training.  These lists will be used as a guide for me as well as trainers when it comes time to designing a training program.

Training can be useful in the development of an organization; however, if done incorrectly it will hurt those that are involved.  For this reason, companies view the effects of training differently.  Therefore, in spite of the training method that companies use, it is important that learning occur.  This will benefit both the organization and the employees.

Noe (2007, p. 125), “states that learning outcomes should be related to what is required to successfully perform the job.”  He identified five different learning outcomes:  verbal information, intellectual skills, motor skills, attitudes, and cognitive skills.  The design of the training program is also extremely important that learning occurs because different generations of employees (nexters, Gen Xers, baby boomers, and traditionalists) have different attitudes and ideal ways of learning.  Regardless of the training method, Noe (2007), mentioned that certain conditions must be present for learning to occur:  (1) providing opportunities for trainees, (2) offering meaningful training content, identifying any prerequisites that trainees need to successfully complete the program, and (4) allowing trainees to learn through observation and experience.  Companies like The Toshiba America Group, Colorado Springs Utilities, Unisys Corporation, and Exelon Energy Delivery focus on helping employees learn so they can successfully perform their jobs.  The principle of learning was both beneficial to the organization the employees.

Kramden Computers, on the other hand, was having difficulties with both training and learning outcomes.  Training and learning are not valued because Managers fear that the employees might leave to a different company when they acquire new knowledge and skills.  Kramden Computer is a company that designs model line of multi-user computer systems.  The company’s production work is routinized and consists of assembling a variety of parts into a system (Darrah, 1996).  Annual layoffs are also typical.  Training was given a try by the production manager to reduce workmanship problems.  Though, training failed because production workers were not advised and were not asked about their training needs.  In fact, training caused more problems.  Workers felt that there were no incentives to pressure one another while working in teams.  They were also annoyed at the fact that some information was kept from them by the company.  They had to learn new information from the trainers instead.  The company didn’t have any formal charters, hoping to allow flexibilities within each department; however, there were still problems that were not addressed.  Kramden Computer identified three challenges to the concept the skill requirements.   These are challenges they need to overcome if they want to continue to be successful.

Learning is viewed differently by people.  In Kramden Computer case, on-the-job training and the training class are seen as learning utilities.  Other forms of learning are seen as unintentional (Darrah, 1996).  On-the-job training is an informal instruction base-learning.  Knowledge is this case is seen as task-based:  labor of assembling, testing, and repairing PCBs.  Instructions are given orally and knowledge is stored in the memories of the workers.  In essence, “on-the-job training takes the form of self-instruction” (Darrah, 1996, p. 39).   Knowledge is viewed differently by the instructors and the management of Kramden.  Their divergent views then caused conflicts in how learning is valued.

In brief, effective training is essential to learning outcomes.  An explanation for this is that companies need to assess what is it that employees need to improve on.  They need to involve them in the training process.  Also for learning to occur, employees need to know that training will be beneficial to them.  For instance, people of different age group have different needs about learning.  I think that Noe (2007) did a great job explaining certain conditions that training methods need to have in order for learning to occur.  This is something companies need to consider when deciding on their training methods.  Even if companies don’t agree with all of these outcomes, at least it is something they can start with.

While skill is socially constructed; demands vary from employer to employer.  Soft skills and social skills are new criteria that employers look for; however, the characteristics are so vague because the requirements are based on the employers need.  Skills are also being discriminated based on gender and race.  This stereotypical assumption will continue to be a disadvantage toward those with skills.  On the other hand, needs assessment is a method that is going to be continuously useful for organization’s effectiveness.  This process enables us to see if training is needed.  Training may not always be the case; conducting a needs assessment will save companies a great deal of time and money.

Firstly, the terms for soft skills differ from employer to employer:  self-confident, stylish, working as a team, ability to fit in, customer focus, etc. (Grugulis, 2007).  On the contrary, “the ability to communicate with colleagues and customers, priorities tasks and reshape work are necessary skills needed in almost every workplace” (Grugulis, 2007, p. 76).  This may not always be the case for some companies because soft skills are skewed towards a desired culture of a company.  This is also true when jobs are designed around the idea of masculinity and femininity.  People are chosen based on their gender instead of their skills that they possess.  For instance, in American banks, women were seen to be a customer relationship manager.  If this job was to be given to a male, he would be seen as homosexual (Grugulis, 2007).  It is important to realize that skill requirements vary because it is based on the employees want.

Furthermore, a needs assessment is necessary because training may not necessarily be the case, training programs may have the wrong content, training will not deliver the expected learning, etc. (Noe, 2008).  A needs assessment is highly recommended to companies in order to save time and money.  However, in order for needs assessment to be effective, upper-level managers, mid-level managers, trainers, SMEs, and job incumbents need to participate.  The three elements of needs assessment are organizational analysis, person analysis, and task analysis.  Several methods are used to conduct these analyses, for instance, observations, questionnaires, interviews, etc. but each has advantages and disadvantages of its own.  Organizational analysis is usually conducted first because it identifies whether training fits the company’s strategic plan or whether the company have the time and resources.  Once organizational analysis is conducted, we then can turn to person or task analysis.  Person analysis helps identify employees who need training and task analysis results in a description of work activities required to complete a task.  Companies are also using competency models to help identify knowledge, skills, and personal characteristics to help determine whether employees have the capabilities to succeed. (Noe, 2007)

Grugulis (2007), has opened up my eyes to see how important skills are.  You can be a well-rounded person and have all the attributes to apply for a job, but if gender is the case you might not even get accepted.  This stereotypical issue may seem unfair but it is something that we cannot help.  Our skills are useful only if the employer feel that it is useful.  On the other hand, we can be confident that needs assessment will be useful in helping with organization development because it will save companies a great deal of time and money, especially when training may not be the case.

With the increase of new technology, work is changing and people are not prepared for this transformation.  Therefore, to have a competitive advantage, companies need to come up with interventions to cope with these changes.  Training and development is one main aspect to improve and develop skills needed to manage forces that are influencing the workplace.

Changes in the workplace are demanding more and diverse skills (Darrah, 1996).  In order to compete in the global and shifting economy, companies must be prepared to deal with any obstacles they may face.  To survive, companies must address some of the following forces:  Globalization, Technology, Focus on link to business strategy, etc (more to be found on pg. 8, Noe, 2008).  Globalization has impacted companies in many ways:  companies are sending off their employees oversea, bringing people in to work in the
United States, or companies may even move their jobs overseas.   Cross-cultural training is an intervention that is helpful in preparing employees and their families for overseas.  Furthermore, technology has reshaped pretty much most of our lives.  The internet and e-commerce are great examples of how quick technologies are impacting the workplace and lives.  Technology has made training more of an opportunity for employees because they are able to access it anywhere at anytime.  The last force that was mentioned:  the focus on links to business strategy.  To help reach their goals, companies can link training and development to business strategy, such as meeting broad goals and improving qualities (Noe, 2008).  There are more forces that a company needs to address in order to survive, however, realizing how important training and development are can be helpful in the success of companies.

However, not all companies focus on training and development, because it is expensive and time consuming.  Small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs) are less likely to train their employees when compared to large firms (Grugulis, 2007) because they are more likely to have downsizing and to go bankrupt.  This is important to take into consideration because SMEs account for a growing proportion of employment; and these employees work part-time and are low-paid.  With the changing economy, the workplaces are demanding more skilled workers.  These unskilled workers will be left behind because their companies are not training them to improve and develop in their knowledge, skills, and abilities.

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